Power, faith and fantasy
Book Review by Jack Cohen: "Power, Faith and Fantasy: America in the Middle East, 1776 to the present," by Michael Oren (presented at AACI-Netanya, April 29, 2010)
This important book is the first comprehensive account of the history of American involvement in the Middle East, from the establishment of the United States to the Iraq war. After writing his excellent book on the Six-day War, entitled "Six days of war: June 1967 and the making of the modern Middle East" Oren tackled this mammoth task, and came out with this superb and engaging opus. It could be said to have earned him the position he now holds of Israeli Ambassador to the USA.
This is a long book, 700 pages, 100 of which are notes. Also, since the latter part of the history after WWII is well-known, he devotes only 100 pages to this, so I too will focus on the earlier period. Also, the history of Zionism will be well known to most people.
The three aspects of the title are intertwining strands that exemplify American involvement in the ME. The "faith" represents the early influx of Christian missionaries who sought to both convert the Muslims and to establish a Jewish presence. Americans were fascinated by the "fantasy" of the mysterious and dangerous region and actually tried to introduce Western methods into the region, for example in the founding of the American University in Beirut. Finally, the "power" represents the US intervention in Middle Eastern politics from its beginnings that propelled it to a central position both by the discovery of oil in Saudi Arabia and the support for Israel.
There are some revelations in this book which I certainly found surprising and which I will focus on:
Barbary Wars: Many people are unaware that the first foreign war that the US was engaged in was with the North African Muslim area, known as the Barbary coast. Muslim pirates, who were really the navies of the N African rulers, preyed on ships in the Mediterranean. In order to protect their ships some countries paid tribute to the rulers, including France and Britain. When the US became independent it no longer had British protection, so for a period of twenty years after independence American ships were being captured and their crew and passengers were enslaved. Eventually, after ca. 20% of the US Treasury was being paid to these rulers and still boats were being taken, Congress voted in 1794 to found the US Navy "for the protection of the US against Algerian corsairs." In 1801 Tripoli declared war on the US and the US reciprocated in 1803 by declaring war on Tripoli. However, the first US naval engagement did not go well, since the USS Philadelphia and its 305 man crew was captured and towed into Tripoli harbor. In 1804 Stephen Decatur lead an attack that set fire to the Philadelphia. Also, a marine unit raided Darna, hence in the US Marine's anthem "to the shores of Tripoli." Finally, in 1815, Pres. James Madison said "weakness will invite insults," and sent a force of 20 ships that attacked N. Africa. Thus, the US established itself as a power to be reckoned with.
Restorationism: When William Bradford stepped off the Mayflower in 1620 he said “come let us declare in Zion the word of God.” The concept of Zion as the rightful place of the Puritans was derived from the idea of the rightful place of the Jews in the original Zion. The concept of "restorationism", of God's will being to restore the Jews to Zion became common in American Christianity. These ideas were not marginal but mainstream extending to all sects and commanding massive following in all classes. George Bush, a professor of divinity and an ancestor of the later George Bushes, wrote a pamphlet supporting the concept. Levi Parsons gave sermons all across New England in favor of restoring the Jews to Zion. In 1810 an American Board of Foreign Missions was established mainly to support missionaries going to the Middle East. The first missionaries in 1812 were Levi Parsons and Pliny Fisk. The fascination that many American Christians had towards the Jews did not stem from any extensive contact they had with them in America, for at that time there were only some 4,000 Jews corresponding to ca. 0.04%. During the early 1800’s hundreds of American missionaries followed, many of them with the intention of settling in Palestine in the Ottoman Empire, in order to prepare the way for the restoration of the Jews. These Christians, some of who did not like Jews when they actually met them in the flesh, nevertheless constituted the first wave of Zionists, even before the Jewish Zionists from Eastern Europe began to arrive in the 1860’s and later. When American Presidents supported Israel, including Truman, Reagan and Bush, we tended to discount their religious convictions.
Missionaries: While some Christian missionaries focused on restoration of the Jews, many other intended to convert the Muslims to an enlightened, modern and Christian way of life. But, they were notably unsuccessful and some of them were killed in the process. Maybe the British missionaries had previously had similar experiences because they tended to focus on the far east. So gradually the American missionaries reverted to setting up schools and clinics that were appreciated by the locals. These institutions became very influential in the Middle East and included the American Universities in Beirut and Cairo and Robert’s Schools in Damascus and Turkey. In these schools local Arabs learnt about nationalism and socialism and there is little doubt that the anti-Ottoman and anti-colonialist views taught by the American instructors lead to the radicalization of many young Arabs.
Fantasy: Many Americans learnt about the Middle East from the Chicago Great Exhibition of 1893 (set up for the 400th anniversary of Columbus’s discovery of America). On the Midway the most popular exhibits were those of the Middle East, set up by Sol Bloom a young Jewish man from California who made a lot of money on it, and later became an influential Congressman. It is reported that millions of Americans from the Mid-West came to see these exhibits. Another source of fantasy was developed by the journalist Lowell Thomas, who was chiefly responsible for promoting the myth of Lawrence of Arabia. He toured the US and the world giving lectures and lionizing both Lawrence and Prince Faisal, the model of the brave Arab desert dweller. Then of course there was Rudolph Valentino and "The Sheikh of Araby." Of course, in time, these fantasies gave way to the realities of Arab cruelty and political extremism.
Egypt: Egypt tended to be ignored by the missionaries, but the local ruler, the Khedive, wanted to be free of Ottoman rule. He was afraid of the British and French, who he feared had colonial designs on his country, so he decided to employ Americans to establish the first Egyptian army. In 1868 he invited Thaddeus Mott a former confederate officer to come to Egypt with a corps of other American former officers to carry out this task. In 1869 a group of some 20 officers under the command of former Confederate General Loring arrived and worked in Egypt of several years. It is not too much of an exaggeration to say that they established the foundations of modern Egyptian independence. They also undertook two expeditions to the Sudan. A total of 48 Civil War officers worked for and fought for Egypt. However, in the end their efforts were in vain because the British occupied Egypt and the Sudan and remained there until after WWII.
Statue of Liberty: Many think that the iconic Statue of Liberty in NY harbor was designed to stand there. But, it was not! Originally it was conceived by its designer Frederic Bartholdi to stand at the entrance of the Suez canal and was to have been an Egyptian peasant woman holding a torch of enlightenment. But, funds ran out in 1871, so he sought an alternative site that would accommodate it, and happened to hit on NYC. The Statue was paid for by the French Govt. and the pedestal by the American people. Of course, he had to redesign the figure, since an Egyptian peasant woman was not considered appropriate.
Turkey: US relations with Turkey were complex. Under the Ottoman Empire the US was generally hostile because of the mistreatment of minorities, including Armenians and Jews. In fact, the US was the leading country trying to help the Armenians during the genocide of 1917-23, but without much success. The US was also very careful not to antagonize the Porte because of the many missionaries and schools throughout the Empire that could be attacked by Muslims if they ordered it.
WWI: Although the US declared War on Germany in WWI it did not declare war on Turkey! This had enormous consequences. The reasons President Woodrow Wilson decided against this was first the large number of missionaries throughout the Ottoman Empire and second because Congress and the American people were not in favor of extending the war. As a result of this decision, when the Paris Peace Conference convened in 1919, the US was unable to influence the outcome in the ME. Pres. Wilson was strongly against the colonial plans of Britain and France to “carve-up” the ME. So there was a deadlock until a minor official suggested the idea of Mandates. At first this was rejected, but then became a compromise. It was suggested that the US have the Mandate for Palestine and Syria, but the British would not agree and they had the troops on the ground to prevent it. Finally Britain took the Mandate for Palestine and Iraq and France for Syria, and then carved out Lebanon. The US was supposed to get the Mandate for central Turkey and Armenia, but the Congress was afraid of foreign entanglements and so it was canceled. What would have happened if the US had declared war on Turkey and had taken the Mandate for Palestine? In effect these were the first peace negotiations of the ME and eventually they failed, since the British were forced to give up their Mandate principally by the Jewish insurgency.
Oren labels the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 as "the first ME peace process." Since then American Presidents have labored to find a formula or solution to the complex situation, and so far all have failed. Perhaps Pres. Obama should recognize this before he puts all his prestige into such an endeavor.
This important book is the first comprehensive account of the history of American involvement in the Middle East, from the establishment of the United States to the Iraq war. After writing his excellent book on the Six-day War, entitled "Six days of war: June 1967 and the making of the modern Middle East" Oren tackled this mammoth task, and came out with this superb and engaging opus. It could be said to have earned him the position he now holds of Israeli Ambassador to the USA.
This is a long book, 700 pages, 100 of which are notes. Also, since the latter part of the history after WWII is well-known, he devotes only 100 pages to this, so I too will focus on the earlier period. Also, the history of Zionism will be well known to most people.
The three aspects of the title are intertwining strands that exemplify American involvement in the ME. The "faith" represents the early influx of Christian missionaries who sought to both convert the Muslims and to establish a Jewish presence. Americans were fascinated by the "fantasy" of the mysterious and dangerous region and actually tried to introduce Western methods into the region, for example in the founding of the American University in Beirut. Finally, the "power" represents the US intervention in Middle Eastern politics from its beginnings that propelled it to a central position both by the discovery of oil in Saudi Arabia and the support for Israel.
There are some revelations in this book which I certainly found surprising and which I will focus on:
Barbary Wars: Many people are unaware that the first foreign war that the US was engaged in was with the North African Muslim area, known as the Barbary coast. Muslim pirates, who were really the navies of the N African rulers, preyed on ships in the Mediterranean. In order to protect their ships some countries paid tribute to the rulers, including France and Britain. When the US became independent it no longer had British protection, so for a period of twenty years after independence American ships were being captured and their crew and passengers were enslaved. Eventually, after ca. 20% of the US Treasury was being paid to these rulers and still boats were being taken, Congress voted in 1794 to found the US Navy "for the protection of the US against Algerian corsairs." In 1801 Tripoli declared war on the US and the US reciprocated in 1803 by declaring war on Tripoli. However, the first US naval engagement did not go well, since the USS Philadelphia and its 305 man crew was captured and towed into Tripoli harbor. In 1804 Stephen Decatur lead an attack that set fire to the Philadelphia. Also, a marine unit raided Darna, hence in the US Marine's anthem "to the shores of Tripoli." Finally, in 1815, Pres. James Madison said "weakness will invite insults," and sent a force of 20 ships that attacked N. Africa. Thus, the US established itself as a power to be reckoned with.
Restorationism: When William Bradford stepped off the Mayflower in 1620 he said “come let us declare in Zion the word of God.” The concept of Zion as the rightful place of the Puritans was derived from the idea of the rightful place of the Jews in the original Zion. The concept of "restorationism", of God's will being to restore the Jews to Zion became common in American Christianity. These ideas were not marginal but mainstream extending to all sects and commanding massive following in all classes. George Bush, a professor of divinity and an ancestor of the later George Bushes, wrote a pamphlet supporting the concept. Levi Parsons gave sermons all across New England in favor of restoring the Jews to Zion. In 1810 an American Board of Foreign Missions was established mainly to support missionaries going to the Middle East. The first missionaries in 1812 were Levi Parsons and Pliny Fisk. The fascination that many American Christians had towards the Jews did not stem from any extensive contact they had with them in America, for at that time there were only some 4,000 Jews corresponding to ca. 0.04%. During the early 1800’s hundreds of American missionaries followed, many of them with the intention of settling in Palestine in the Ottoman Empire, in order to prepare the way for the restoration of the Jews. These Christians, some of who did not like Jews when they actually met them in the flesh, nevertheless constituted the first wave of Zionists, even before the Jewish Zionists from Eastern Europe began to arrive in the 1860’s and later. When American Presidents supported Israel, including Truman, Reagan and Bush, we tended to discount their religious convictions.
Missionaries: While some Christian missionaries focused on restoration of the Jews, many other intended to convert the Muslims to an enlightened, modern and Christian way of life. But, they were notably unsuccessful and some of them were killed in the process. Maybe the British missionaries had previously had similar experiences because they tended to focus on the far east. So gradually the American missionaries reverted to setting up schools and clinics that were appreciated by the locals. These institutions became very influential in the Middle East and included the American Universities in Beirut and Cairo and Robert’s Schools in Damascus and Turkey. In these schools local Arabs learnt about nationalism and socialism and there is little doubt that the anti-Ottoman and anti-colonialist views taught by the American instructors lead to the radicalization of many young Arabs.
Fantasy: Many Americans learnt about the Middle East from the Chicago Great Exhibition of 1893 (set up for the 400th anniversary of Columbus’s discovery of America). On the Midway the most popular exhibits were those of the Middle East, set up by Sol Bloom a young Jewish man from California who made a lot of money on it, and later became an influential Congressman. It is reported that millions of Americans from the Mid-West came to see these exhibits. Another source of fantasy was developed by the journalist Lowell Thomas, who was chiefly responsible for promoting the myth of Lawrence of Arabia. He toured the US and the world giving lectures and lionizing both Lawrence and Prince Faisal, the model of the brave Arab desert dweller. Then of course there was Rudolph Valentino and "The Sheikh of Araby." Of course, in time, these fantasies gave way to the realities of Arab cruelty and political extremism.
Egypt: Egypt tended to be ignored by the missionaries, but the local ruler, the Khedive, wanted to be free of Ottoman rule. He was afraid of the British and French, who he feared had colonial designs on his country, so he decided to employ Americans to establish the first Egyptian army. In 1868 he invited Thaddeus Mott a former confederate officer to come to Egypt with a corps of other American former officers to carry out this task. In 1869 a group of some 20 officers under the command of former Confederate General Loring arrived and worked in Egypt of several years. It is not too much of an exaggeration to say that they established the foundations of modern Egyptian independence. They also undertook two expeditions to the Sudan. A total of 48 Civil War officers worked for and fought for Egypt. However, in the end their efforts were in vain because the British occupied Egypt and the Sudan and remained there until after WWII.
Statue of Liberty: Many think that the iconic Statue of Liberty in NY harbor was designed to stand there. But, it was not! Originally it was conceived by its designer Frederic Bartholdi to stand at the entrance of the Suez canal and was to have been an Egyptian peasant woman holding a torch of enlightenment. But, funds ran out in 1871, so he sought an alternative site that would accommodate it, and happened to hit on NYC. The Statue was paid for by the French Govt. and the pedestal by the American people. Of course, he had to redesign the figure, since an Egyptian peasant woman was not considered appropriate.
Turkey: US relations with Turkey were complex. Under the Ottoman Empire the US was generally hostile because of the mistreatment of minorities, including Armenians and Jews. In fact, the US was the leading country trying to help the Armenians during the genocide of 1917-23, but without much success. The US was also very careful not to antagonize the Porte because of the many missionaries and schools throughout the Empire that could be attacked by Muslims if they ordered it.
WWI: Although the US declared War on Germany in WWI it did not declare war on Turkey! This had enormous consequences. The reasons President Woodrow Wilson decided against this was first the large number of missionaries throughout the Ottoman Empire and second because Congress and the American people were not in favor of extending the war. As a result of this decision, when the Paris Peace Conference convened in 1919, the US was unable to influence the outcome in the ME. Pres. Wilson was strongly against the colonial plans of Britain and France to “carve-up” the ME. So there was a deadlock until a minor official suggested the idea of Mandates. At first this was rejected, but then became a compromise. It was suggested that the US have the Mandate for Palestine and Syria, but the British would not agree and they had the troops on the ground to prevent it. Finally Britain took the Mandate for Palestine and Iraq and France for Syria, and then carved out Lebanon. The US was supposed to get the Mandate for central Turkey and Armenia, but the Congress was afraid of foreign entanglements and so it was canceled. What would have happened if the US had declared war on Turkey and had taken the Mandate for Palestine? In effect these were the first peace negotiations of the ME and eventually they failed, since the British were forced to give up their Mandate principally by the Jewish insurgency.
Oren labels the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 as "the first ME peace process." Since then American Presidents have labored to find a formula or solution to the complex situation, and so far all have failed. Perhaps Pres. Obama should recognize this before he puts all his prestige into such an endeavor.
posted by Jack Cohen at 4:21 PM
1 Comments:
Very good stories~~ Thanks for ur sharing~~!! ........................................
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